Even the various reform movements were balked, and with the invasion of Egypt in 1798 by France it became obvious that the once powerful empire was weakening. At last, therefore, Muhammad sent seventy of his followers off to the northern town of Yathrib, which was later to be renamed Medina ("The City"). A year later, in 629, he reentered and, in effect, conquered Mecca without bloodshed and in a spirit of tolerance which established an ideal for future conquests. Requiring a high degree of engineering skill, qanats were built some fifty feet underground with a very slight inclination over long distances to tap underground water and were provided with manholes so that they could be cleaned and repaired. Thank you for sharing. The result was the text that is accepted to this day throughout the Muslim world. The Arab Spring reignited a debate within the Middle East and in academic circles about the universality of human rights and their compatibility, or incompatibility, with culture and religion. Photo: The basmalah ("In the name of God the Merciful the Compassionate" - the opening words of the Quran) is here done in an elaborate thuluth script with the letters joined so that the entire phrase is written without lifting the pen from the paper. Calligraphy flourished during the Umayyad era in Damascus. Islam numbers many millions of adherents outside the Middle Eastern countries: Photo: Sunset silhouettes a minaret in Sarajevo, a city of some eighty mosques that bear witness to the long Islamic heritage of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is useful to realize that the power of Islam was separate from much and more permanent than that of the armies with which it rode. These successes, however, were qualified by serious administrative weaknesses. The fifth pillar of Islam is the pilgrimage to Mecca - the hajj. Ibn Ishaq, one of the earliest biographers of the Prophet, says it was at about this time that Muhammad sent letters to the rulers of the earth - the King of Persia, the Emperor of Byzantium, the Negus of Abyssinia, and the Governor of Egypt among others - inviting them to submit to Islam. Muslims believe in the existence of one God, whom they refer to as Allah. The month of fasting is also joyous. Due to overwhelming content, each of these hubs can be considered a home page of its own. Orhan's successor, Murad I, who launched naval attacks upon the Aegean coasts of Europe, established himself on the European shores of the Bosporus, and crushed a Balkan coalition. The Turks were part of a powerful military empire that unified the region under a Middle Eastern religion called Islam, . Those who are ill, or on an arduous journey, for example, may fast the prescribed number of days at another time; those for whom fasting is impossible may forego it if they give stipulated alms to the needy. Because Islamic rule unified much of the Eastern world, thus abolishing many boundaries, trade was freer, safer, and more extensive than it had been since the time of Alexander the Great. Under the 'Abbasids too a whole literature was created for the use and training of the clerical classes that had come into being. 'Abd al-Malik established a system of postal routes to expedite his communications throughout the far flung empire. This is not to say that the Muslims were not brave and that the conviction that they were doing Allah's will was not significant: it clearly was. During what is known as the Golden Age of Islam, which lasted roughly between the mid-eighth century until the 13th century, the Muslim world was the center of intellectual activity, with Baghdad serving as the capital for philosophers, mathematicians and scientists. Muslim traders, consequently, established trading posts as far away as India, the Philippines, Malaya, the East Indies, and China. After the first crusade, Western Europe sends 7 more in the next two centuries. Even more astonishingly, the Muslim state administered the conquered territories with a tolerance almost unheard of in that age. The nationalist government under Ataturk, dedicated to leading Turkey in the direction of secularism and Westernization, abolished the sultanate, declared a republic, and eventually (in 1924) abolished the caliphate as well. The traditional cloths were wool and linen - the latter an Egyptian specialty since ancient times - but cotton, which was introduced into upper Iraq about the time of the Prophet, later spread with Islam around the Mediterranean, to Syria, North Africa, Spain, Sicily, Cyprus, and Crete. He knows what lies before them Umar's early campaigns were against the Byzantine Empire. In the history of the Middle Ages, this was far more important than ephemeral conquests. This section is more for the technologically minded. Photo: A Moorish-built tower soars above Guadalquivir River in Seville. Considered dispassionately, the venture was impossible. JazakAllah. 'Abd al-Malik's organization of government agencies was also important; it established a model for the later elaborate bureaucracies of the 'Abbasids and their successor states. As they grew in importance to the economy these craftsmen eventually organized themselves into mutual-benefit societies which in some ways were similar to later Western guilds and which offered many social services: lodging travelers, engaging in pious works such as caring for orphans, and endowing schools. The last ten days of Ramadan are particularly sacred because they include the anniversary of the night on which Muhammad received his first revelation from God - "the Night of Power" - and the appearance, on the final day, of the thin edge of the new moon announcing the end of Ramadan. The verses of the Quran stress God's uniqueness, warn those who deny it of impending punishment, and proclaim His unbounded compassion to those who submit to His will. Photo: Cursive script on a section of gold-embroidered kiswah, the black cloth covering of the Ka'bah, which is renewed each year at the time of the pilgrimage. } else { Photo: Purity of line characterizes the late twelfth century Kutubiyah Mosque of the Berbers in Marrakesh. The famous theologian al-Ghazali whose greatest work, the Revival of the Sciences of Religion, was a triumph of Sunni theology taught for a time at the nizamiyah schools at Baghdad and at Nishapur. The men most responsible for encouraging the study of geometry were the sons of Musa ibn Shakir, al-Mamurl's court astronomer. As the chief source of Islamic doctrine and practice, the Quran is the main foundation of the shari'ah, the sacred law of Islam, which covers all aspects of the public and private, social and economic, religious and political lives of all Muslims. When, for example, al-Mamun marched from Khorasan to Baghdad, he left a trusted general named Tahir ibn al-Husayn in charge of the eastern province. "Both their identities were challenged: their American identity and their Muslim identity," said Asani, who teaches Indo-Muslim and Islamic Religion and Cultures . Following the decisive Battle of Yarmouk in 636, the former Byzantine states of Syria, Palestine, and Lebanon were conquered by the Muslim armies. Instead, there is the ummah - the community of the believers - whose cohesion is guaranteed by the sacred law. The Ridda Wars ended around 634. It is the essence of Islam. Islam is based on the belief in one God (Allah) and the teachings of Muhammad as recorded in the Quran, the holy book of Islam. The Arabic alphabet has twenty-eight letters (additional letters have been added to serve the needs of non-Arabic languages that use the Arabic script, such as those of Iran and Pakistan), and each of the letters may have up to four different forms. Both Winston Churchill and Lord Balfour himself later said publicly that "a national home" meant a cultural or religious center, a view that America's King-Crane Commission independently presented. At the dawn of the fourteenth century, Ghazan Khan Mahmud officially adopted Islam as the religion of the state, and for a time peace descended on the eastern portion of the Mongol empire. After the fall of Constantinople, and during the sixteenth century, the Ottoman system evolved the centralized administrative framework by which the sultans maintained effective control over the extraordinarily diverse peoples in the vast empire. Established by the prophet Muhammad, the religion of Islam unified a diverse cultural region that spans several countries. An exemplary leader, he lived simply, assiduously fulfilled his religious obligations, and was accessible and sympathetic to his people. Later, he consolidated the support of the tribes within the Arabian Peninsula and subsequently funnelled their energies against the powerful empires of the East: the Sassanians in Persia and the Byzantines in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. At the start of the Islamic era two types of script seem to have been in use - both derived from different forms of the Nabataean, alphabet. Except such as He wills; Each of these men, all exceptional scholars, wrote or dictated long and learned commentaries upon which their schools of law were founded. By the eleventh century, however, a small pocket of Christian resistance had begun to grow, and under Alfonso VI Christian forces retook Toledo. One of the great centers of learning was Baghdad, where Arab, Greek, Persian, Jewish, and other scholars pooled their cultural heritages and where in 771 an Indian scholar appeared, bringing with him a treatise on astronomy using the Indian numerical system. Photo: At Hama in Syria, antique wooden wheels still lift the waters of the Orontes to gardens, baths, and cooling fountains. Scholars, for example, in collecting and reexamining the hadith, or "traditions" - the sayings and actions of the Prophet - compiled immense biographical detail about the Prophet and other information, historic and linguistic, about the Prophet's era. Photo: The most impossing of the many fortresses built by the crusaders, the elegant krak des Chevailers in Syria held out against the Muslims for over a century and a half. If a 3 and a 2 respectively were substituted for the Roman clusters CCC and II, the written result was 32. A third important factor was the establishment in Baghdad of a paper mill. Islam spread so quickly because of the message the message it was so strong to spread so quickly ( Document B). On January 8, the Center for Middle East Policy at Brookings hosted the launch of a report titled "Islam as Statecraft: How governments use religion in foreign policy," authored by two senior . Photo: The ruq'ah script is used for headlines and titles and is the everyday written script of most of the Arab world. Christians and Muslims discuss the different traditions of mission, conversion and the expansion of religions worldwide. From 821 onward Tahir and his descendants ruled Khorasan as an independent state, with the tacit consent of the 'Abbasids. The early spread of Islam was directly linked to the revelations and work of the Prophet Muhammad who . Qiyas is the application of human reasoning to extend the principles found in the two primary sources - the Quran and the sunnah - to cases involving matters unknown in the early years of Islam. Muslims, consider the Quran (sometimes spelled "Koran") to be the Word of God as transmitted by the Angel Gabriel, in the Arabic language, through the Prophet Muhammad. Whether or not Islam provided the motivation for early Muslim imperialism, it could be used to provide justification for it - in the same way that it had previously been used to support Muhammad's own actions against his opponents. Europe's worldwide nineteenth-century search for raw materials, markets, military bases, and colonies eventually touched most of what had been the Arab empire. Instead, France and Great Britain secretly agreed to partition most of the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire between them and eventually obtained mandates from the League of Nations: Britain over Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan; France over Syria and Lebanon. Another was the development of Arabic, by the ninth century, into the language of international scholarship as well as the language of the Divine Truth. It was by no means theoretical speculation; many of the dams, reservoirs, and aqueducts constructed at this time throughout the Islamic world still survive. The criticisms that religious men in Medina and elsewhere had voiced of Umayyad policy - particularly the pursuit of worldly goals - were not lost on 'Umar who, reversing the policy of his predecessors, discontinued the levy of a poll tax on converts. However, the sharifs of Mecca and Medina are virtually independent. Until that time the Egyptian, Greek, and other cultures used their own numerals in a manner similar to that of the Romans. Many also make the sa'y or running, a reenactment of a frantic search for water by Hagar when she and Abraham's son Ishmael were stranded in the valley of Mecca until the Angel Gabriel led them to water in the Well of Zamzam. By the time 'Abd al-Rahman reached Spain, the Arabs from North Africa were already entrenched on the Iberian Peninsula and had begun to write one of the most glorious chapters in Islamic history. Palestine, they pointed out, had been part of the Islamic world almost continually for twelve centuries; from 636 to the First World War. The early rise of Islam (632-700) The Muslim community spread through the Middle East through conquest, and the resulting growth of the Muslim state provided the ground in which the recently . Geographical unity, however, was but one factor. A fountainhead of medical wisdom during the Islamic era, al-Razi, according to one contemporary account, was also a fine teacher and a compassionate physician, who brought rations to the poor and provided nursing for them. Tahir asserted his independence of the central government by omitting mention of the caliph's name in the mosque on Friday and by striking his own coins - acts which became the standard ways of expressing political independence. The use of Arabic script has therefore tended to develop in the direction of calligraphy and the development of artistically pleasing forms of hand lettering, while in the West the trend has been toward printing and the development of ornamental and sometimes elaborate type faces. The orphan was consigned to the care of his grandfather, the head of the clan of Hashim. All Rights Reserved, IslamiCity is a registered trademark of HADI, a nonprofit 501 (c)(3) organization. Called Banu Musa - "the sons of Musa" - these three men, Muhammad, Ahmad, and al-Hasan, devoted their lives and fortunes to the quest for knowledge. As Thabit's knowledge of Greek and Syriac was unrivaled, he contributed enormously to the translation of Greek scientific writing and also produced some seventy original works - in mathematics, astronomy, astrology, ethics, mechanics, music, medicine, physics, philosophy, and the construction of scientific instruments. Values section on the other hand is very special. Non-Muslims are often struck by the range of styles found in the Quran. Like prayer, zakah is considered a form of worship. . Western forms have been adapted as much as they have been adopted, and healthy hybrid forms and concepts abound. Judaism dates from about 1200 B.C. the Everlasting; To cement social bonds further, Islam has instituted zakat al-fitr, an obligatory levy in the form of provisions or money for the poor, so that they can share in the joy of 'Id al-Fitr. Despite the great mass of words, the full explanation for Muslim victory still eludes us. The early 'Abbasids were also fortunate in the caliber of their caliphs, especially after Harun al-Rashid came to the caliphate in 786. In Syria, for example, many Christians who had been involved in bitter theological disputes with Byzantine authorities- and persecuted for it- welcomed the coming of Islam as an end to tyranny. Every action of the pious Muslim, therefore, is determined by the Quran, by precedents set by the Prophet, and by the practice of the early community of Islam as enshrined in the shari'ah. By promising aid - and ultimate independence from the Ottomans - Great Britain encouraged the Arabs to launch a daring guerrilla campaign against Turkish forces, a campaign widely publicized in press coverage of T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia") and in Lawrence's own writings. While you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser, you will not be able to get the full visual experience. This material became the basis for what is called the sunnah, or "practice" of the Prophet - the deeds, utterances, and taqrir (unspoken approval) of Muhammad. Written in noble language, this Holy Text has done more than move multitudes to tears and ecstasy; it has also, for almost fourteen hundred years, illuminated the lives of Muslims with its eloquent message of uncompromising monotheism, human dignity, righteous living, individual responsibility, and social justice. Islam, founded in seventh-century Arabia by the prophet Muhammad, altered the Middle East economically. My other grandparents believe in god but don't believe in religion. At the beginning of this period, the European presence in the Islamic world was largely based on trade. The Ottomans were not content merely to improve and develop the types of script that they inherited from the Arabs and Persians but also added a number of new styles to the calligrapher's repertoire. These problems were not unmanageable while Mu'awiyah was alive, but after he died in 680 the partisans of 'Ali resumed a complicated but persistent struggle that plagued the Umayyads at home for most of the next seventy years and in time spread into North Africa and Spain. Muhammad and Abu Bakr, however, had taken refuge in a cave where, as they hid from their pursuers, a spider spun its web across the cave's mouth. After an initial success the Muslims were driven back and the Prophet himself was wounded. In the tenth century he proposed a plan to dam the Nile. Al-Razi, for example, was a philosopher and a mathematician as well as a physician and al-Kindi, the first Muslim philosopher to use Aristotelian logic to support Islamic dogma, also wrote on logic, philosophy, geometry, calculation, arithmetic, music, and astronomy. Photo: Persian miniature depicts students with a teacher of astronomy - one of the sciences to which scholars of the Golden Age made great contributions. In addition to the Quran the shari'ah has three sources: the sunnah, the practice of the Prophet; ijma', the consensus of opinion; and qiyas, reasoning by analogy. The military expansions of the earlier period spread Islam in name only; it was later that Islamic culture truly spread, with people converting to Islam in large numbers. Wherever artistic ornamentation and decoration were required, therefore, Muslim artists, forbidden to depict, human or animal forms, for the most part were forced to resort either to what has since come to be known as "arabesque" (designs based on strictly geometrical forms or patterns of leaves and flowers) or, very often, to calligraphy. The Indian way had the advantage of using much smaller clusters of symbols and greatly simplifying written computations. However, there is one prominent difference, which is essentially political rather than religious, and concerns the choice of the caliph or successor of Muhammad. There are many accounts from the period about the early Muslim conquests, but much of the material is unreliable and written to present things in a way that glorified the victors and their God As explanations for the great events of the seventh century these are at best partial. Then, in 1497, five years after Ferdinand and Isabella ended Islamic rule in Spain, Vasco da Gama led a fleet of four Portuguese ships around Africa and in 1498 found a new sea route to India from Europe. Some regions never fully recovered and the Muslim empire, already weakened by internal pressures, never fully regained its previous power. Islamic leaders conquered Iran in 641 and in 642, Egypt was under Islamic control. One of the most moving acts of faith in Islam, the hajj is, for those Muslims who can get to Mecca, the peak of their religious life, a moment when they satisfy a deep yearning to behold at least once the Ka'bah - the House of God and the physical focus of a life time of prayer. Alerted by a chain of signal fires stretching from Iraq to Egypt, the Mamluks were able to marshal their forces in time to meet, and crush, the Mongols at 'Ayn Jalut near Nazareth in Palestine. For the most part, however, Western domination tended to benefit the nations of Europe at the expense of the Arab world. Indeed, the Quran is the cornerstone on which the edifice of Islamic civilization has been built. This consists of two simple white seamless garments symbolizing a state of purity; in donning it pilgrims make a declaration of pilgrimage and pronounce a devotional utterance called the talbiyah: "Here I am, O God, at Thy Service" - in Arabic the joyous cry "Labbayk!" In the early days of Islam, the extension of Islamic rule had been based on an uncomplicated desire to spread the Word of God. Tamerlane died on his way to conquer China, and his empire melted away. Towards the end of the Ottoman Empire, this talent fossilized into bureaucracy - and a moribund bureaucracy at that. Learn Quran Online, Islam is the religion of peace, and it is one of the most sacred and trustworthy religions, which has given us guidance in every aspect of life. To obtain food, for example, Baghdad had to import wheat from Syria and Egypt, rice from the Fayyum in Egypt, southern Morocco, and Spain, and olive oil from Tunisia. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian and all other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. The Islam to spread because of the forgiveness of Muhammad that he help the people. I never saw such a great article like this. Each millet was relatively autonomous, was ruled by its own religious leader, and retained its own laws and customs. Muhammad's Mission and Campaigns. Muslims believe that Muhammad is the last in a line of prophets that includes Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, and that the Quran is the . He pushed forward with the pacification of Persia, continued to defend the Muslim state against the Byzantines, added what is now Libya to the empire, and subjugated most of Armenia. Photo: A forest of eight hundred and fifty pillars connected by Moorish arches lines the great mosque of Cordoba. How did the spread of Islam affect the Middle East? . Consequently, the Holy Text could only be collected as a single corpus - "between the two covers" - after the death of Muhammad. The opinions expressed herein, through this post or comments, contain positions and viewpoints that are not necessarily those of IslamiCity. I have learnt a lot from this article that Allah as it is only through the mercy of Allah that someones proportion of knowledge increases. Another distinctive Turkish contribution is the tughra, an elaborate and highly stylized rendering of the names of the Ottoman sultan, originally used to authenticate imperial decrees. and A.D. 70. watch The Abridged Chronological History of Islam http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=byq9akpc3Tg, 1995 - 2023 IslamiCity. }. There were, however, some positive accomplishments in this period, such as the Hijaz Railway. Like all Islamic ceremonies, prayer is simple and personal, yet also communal, and the wording of the prayers, the ablutions which are required before prayers, the number of bows, and other parts of the ritual are set out in detail. Algeria, ten years later, won its independence from France after six years of bitter warfare. But its confidence was not misplaced. This page has been archived and is no longer updated. Of much greater importance to Islam, however, was 'Uthman's compilation of the text of the Quran as revealed to the Prophet. It was used for the first, handwritten copies of the Quran, and for architectural decoration in the earliest years of the Islamic Empire. As Abu Bakr put it: "Whoever worshipped Muhammad, let him know that Muhammad is dead, but whoever worshipped God, let him know that God lives and dies not.". It was under the 'Abbasids, however, that calligraphy first began to be systematized. As he could no longer rely on the loyalty of his army, al-Mu'tasim recruited an army of Turks from Transoxania and Turkestan. Muslims regard the Quran as untranslatable; the language in which it was revealed - Arabic - is inseparable from its message and Muslims everywhere, no matter what their native tongue, must learn Arabic to read the Sacred Book and to perform their worship. Important books were written on soil analysis, water, and what kinds of crops were suited to what soil. Abu Bakr took swift military action against the communities that wanted to break away. And even if there be one hair binding me to my fellowmen, I do not let it break: when they pull I loosen, and if they loosen I pull. Read more. In the East, Umayyad rule in Transoxania brought the Arabs into contact with the Turks who, like the Berbers, embraced Islam and, in the course of time, became its staunch defenders. Photo: From top - Modern Arabic (western); Early Arabic (western); Arabic Letters (used as numerals); Modern Arabic (eastern); Early Arabic (eastern); Early Devanagari (Indian); Later Devanagari. But . Writers of this period also studied tribal traditions and wrote the first systematic Arabic grammars. In 1187 Saladin counterattacked, eventually recapturing Jerusalem. In fact, it seems quite possible that the Arab scholars used their own numerals but manipulated them in the Indian way. Among his many contributions to optics was the first correct explanation . The Mongol invasions, in fact, were a major cause of the subsequent decline that set in throughout the heartland of the Arab East. His death, nevertheless, had little effect on the dynamic society he had created in Arabia, and no effect at all on his central mission: to transmit the Quran to the world. Adopting the title Amir al-Muminin, "Commander of the Believers," 'Umar extended Islam's temporal rule over Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Persia in what from a purely military standpoint were astonishing victories. The Reason Why Some Persons and the Common People Leave a Physician Even If He Is Clever, and A Clever Physician Does Not Have the Power to Heal All Diseases, for That is Not within the Realm of Possibility. Photo: In the ceremony of sa'y they reenact the search for water by Hagar, wife of the patriarch Abraham. At the Battle of the Trench, also known as the Battle of the Confederates, the Muslims scored a signal victory by introducing a new defense. To Him belongs all that is Islam has helped to shape the culture from the language, to customs, to business, to . These are offered as a means for IslamiCity to stimulate dialogue and discussion in our continuing mission of being an educational organization. Or comments, contain positions and viewpoints that are not necessarily those of.. Hadi, a nonprofit 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization 3 ) organization Islam,,. Of worship, never fully recovered and the Muslim state administered the conquered territories with tolerance. The orphan was consigned to the Prophet Muhammad, the full explanation for Muslim victory still eludes us from language... Is very special grandparents believe in God but don & # x27 s. With a tolerance almost unheard of in that age as an independent state, with the tacit consent of 'Abbasids... Expense of the Ottoman empire, already weakened by internal pressures, never fully recovered and the Prophet himself wounded. 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